Um bómull eftir Deborah Kraak
Bómull eru náttúrutrefjar úr sellúlósa. Saga bómullar er forn og alþjóðleg saga rækturnar, framleiðslu og viðskipta. Heimkynni bómullar eru í hitabeltinu og heittempraða beltinu, þar á meðal í Perú, á Karabísku eyjunum, og í hluta Afríku, en hún er mest tengd Indlandi. Fornleifafundir sýna að bómull hefur verið spunnin, ofin og lituð allt aftur til 3000 f.kr. Gríski sagnfræðingurinn Herodotus (5.öld f.kr.) reit um hinn indverska runna sem bar loðna kúlur, baðmull, sem var fegurri og af betri gæðum en fjárull, og hann rómaði sérstakleg s laust ofin bómullarefni þeirra, sem Indverjarnir nefndu ofinn vind. Öldum saman voru indverskir handverksmenn fremstir í að breyta stuttum trefjum bómullar í nógu sterkt uppistöðu band. Þeir kunnu einnig listina að þrykkja á bómullarefni með þvottekta litum, aðferð sem var óþekkt hjá Evrópubúum þar til lok 17. aldar. Vesturlönd tóku seinna yfir heimsframleiðslu á bómull með vélar sem aðskildu bómullartrefjarnar frá fræjunum og vélvæddu einnig spunann. Þessar uppfinningar og eftirspurn eftir þrykktri bómull keyrðu Iðnbyltinguna áfram og breyttu farvegi sögunnar. Núorðið er bómull alþjóðleg framleiðsla og bómullarefni þykja enn bera af í þægindum klæða. Nútíma tækni hefur verið þróuð til að standast kröfur ræktunar og framleiðslu bómullar. Sumt er keypt dýru verði á kostnað umhverfisins sérstaklega plöntueitur og litunarefni. 10-16% notkunar plöntueiturs á heimsvísu er vegna bómullarræktar þ.m.t. skordýraeitur, illgresiseitur og aflaufgunar efni og 16-25% af öllu skordýraeitri. (Tölur gefnar út af bómullarframleiðendum.) Litunariðnaðurinn mengar vatn. Vísindamenn og umhverfissinnar reyna að finna vænni leiðir fyrir iðnaðinn. Það er hægt að minnka notkun skordýraeiturs með því að nota skordýraþolna bómull og að nota náttúrlegar aðferðir við ræktun og skordýravarnir. Sífellt er verið að rannsaka nýjar aðferðir til litunar,m.a. með blendingsrækt með áherslu á lit bómullar. Meðvitaðir neytendur þrýsta á að leitast sé til þess að umhverfisvænni og ábyrg bómullarrækt sé höfð við. Endurvinnsla og endurgerð bómullarfata og efna eru skapandi leið til að minnka þörf á nýjum bómullarvörum. Bómull er ræktuð um allan heim í dag. Stundum er bómull frá ákveðnum héruðum þekkt fyrir fegurð og gæði. „Sea Island“ bómull ræktuð á eyjum fyrir utan strendur Suður Karólínu og Georgíu í Bandaríknunum eru með trefjar sem mælast 3,5 cm eða lengri. Þar sem band þeirra þarf ekki að vera jafn snúðhart og úr bómull almennt þá tekst þeim að framleiða sérstaklega slétt og glansandi efni. Efni úr löngum bómullartrefjum telst vera munðarvara í greininni. Eftir spuna er bómullarband ofið eða prjónað í efni sem svo eru lituð eða þrykkt. Framleiðslan er unnin um allan heim, oft í iðnþróunarlöndum. Einfaldur bolur getur verið framleiðsla verkafólks í mörgum löndum: Bómullin er ræktuð, spunnin ,ofin, sniðin og saumuð saman í flík. Heimildaskrá Web http://alabamachanin.com/about www.cottonusa.org Cotton Council International http://www.kew.org/plant-cultures/plants/cotton_history.html. Website fore Kew Gardens, England http://www.ota.com/organic/environment/cotton_environment.html http://www.textilemuseum.org/green http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton Printed Bean, Susan, „Gandhi and Khadi: the Fabric of Indian Independence,“ in Weiner, Annette B. AndJane Schneider. Cloth and Human Experience. Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989. Chapter 11, pp. 356-376. Gittinger, Mattiebelle. Master Dyers to the World, technique and trade in early Indian dyed textiles. Washington, D.C.: Textile Museum, 1982. Lauresn, S.E., Hansen, J., Knudsen, H.W., Wenzel, H., Larsen, H.F., & Kristensen, F.M. (2007) EDIPTX: Environmental assessment of textiles. Danish Environmental Protection Agency, working report 24. Lemire, Beverly. Cotton. Oxford, New YorkL Berg, 2011. Part of the series, Textiles that changed the world. Myers, Dorothy and Sue Stolton, editors. Organic cotton: from field to final product. London: Intermediate Technology, 1999. Smith, C. Wayne, J. Tom Colthre, editors. Cotton: origin, history, technology, and production (Wiley series in crop science). New York: J. Wiley, 1999. Deborah Kraak Studies 1991, Attingham Summer School for the History of the English County House 1981, MA in Art History, Institute of Fine Arts, New York University and Museum Training Certificate, IFA and Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, NY 1977, BA in Art History, Michigan State University, E. Lansing, Michigan Work 1997-to the present, Independent Museum Professional; clients include, American Museum of Textile History, Lowell, Massachusetts; Baltimore Museum of Art; Fogg Museum, Harvard University; Iolani Palace, Honolulu, Hawaii; Los Angeles County Museum of Art; Philadelphia Museum of Art 2007 Director of Interpretation and Adult Programming, Curator of Exhibitions at the Chester County Historical Society, West Chester, Pennsylvania 1992-1997 Associate Curator and In Charge of Textiles, Henry Francis DuPont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, Delaware 1985-1991 Associate Curator, Department of Textiles and Costume, Museum of Fine Art, Boston Adjunct Instructor 1992 to the present, includes Winterthur Program in Early American Culture, Cooper-Hewitt Masters Program in the Decorative Arts, Maryland Institute/College of Art, University of Delaware, and Williams College |
About Cotton by Deborah Kraak
Cotton is a natural, cellulosic fiber with an ancient and international history of cultivation, production, and trade. Native to many tropical and subtropical regions, including Peru, the Caribbean, and parts of Africa, it is most closely associated with India. Archaeological finds date Indian cotton spinning, weaving and dyeing to around 3000 BCE. The Greek historian, Herodotus (5th century BCE), writing about the cotton plant, described the Indian shrub’s fluffy cotton bolls as tree wool, 'surpassing in beauty and in quality the wool of sheep; and the Indians wear clothing from these trees.’ The Romans were enthusiastic importers of Indian cottons, especially prizing the lightweight muslins the Indians called woven wind. For centuries, Indian artisans knew best how to convert the short cotton fibers (known as staples) into yarns strong enough to be used for warps. They also knew how to pattern the cotton cloth with colorfast colors, a process unknown to Europeans until the late 17th century. The West later dominated world cotton production, with machines to separate the cotton fibers from their numerous seeds and to mechanize warp spinning. These inventions and the huge demand for printed cotton drove the Industrial Revolution and changed history. Today, cotton remains an international product, and cotton fabrics are still prized for being comfortable to wear. Modern technologies have been developed to meet the perennial challenges of growing and producing cotton. Some of these have high environmental costs, particularly pesticides and dyes. Cotton accounts for approximately 10-16% of the world-wide use of pesticides (including herbicides, insecticides, and defoliants) and between 16-25% of insecticides. (The figures are disputed by the cotton industry.) The dyeing process pollutes water. Alternatives are being sought by concerned scientists and environmentalist. Pesticides can be reduced through selective breeding for a more insect-resistant cotton and the use of organic methods of cultivation and pest control. New dye technology is being explored, as well as the hybridizing of naturally-colored cotton fibers. Consumer awareness also helps drive the search for a more organic, responsible cotton product. Recycling and restyling cotton clothing and fabrics are creative ways to reduce the demand for new cotton goods. Cotton is grown all over the world today. Sometimes cottons from certain areas are known for their particular beauty. Sea Island cotton, grown on the coastal islands of South Carolina and Georgia in the United States, have a staple approximately 1 3/8“ or longer. Because their yarns don‘t need to be as tightly twisted, they produce a more lustrous and supple fabric. Long-staple cottons supply the luxury end of the trade. After spinning, cotton yarns are woven or knitted into fabrics which are then dyed or printed. Production is now global, often from the industrially developing parts of the world. Even a simple T-shirt may be the work of several countries‘ labors: to grow the cotton, spin it, weave it, cut it into pattern pieces, and fashion it into a garment. Bibliography Web http://alabamachanin.com/about www.cottonusa.org Cotton Council International http://www.kew.org/plant-cultures/plants/cotton_history.html. Website fore Kew Gardens, England http://www.ota.com/organic/environment/cotton_environment.html http://www.textilemuseum.org/green http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton Printed Bean, Susan, „Gandhi and Khadi: the Fabric of Indian Independence,“ in Weiner, Annette B. AndJane Schneider. Cloth and Human Experience. Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989. Chapter 11, pp. 356-376. Gittinger, Mattiebelle. Master Dyers to the World, technique and trade in early Indian dyed textiles. Washington, D.C.: Textile Museum, 1982. Lauresn, S.E., Hansen, J., Knudsen, H.W., Wenzel, H., Larsen, H.F., & Kristensen, F.M. (2007) EDIPTX: Environmental assessment of textiles. Danish Environmental Protection Agency, working report 24. Lemire, Beverly. Cotton. Oxford, New YorkL Berg, 2011. Part of the series, Textiles that changed the world. Myers, Dorothy and Sue Stolton, editors. Organic cotton: from field to final product. London: Intermediate Technology, 1999. Smith, C. Wayne, J. Tom Colthre, editors. Cotton: origin, history, technology, and production (Wiley series in crop science). New York: J. Wiley, 1999. |